An eternal theme in science fiction, both written and film, is the discovery of dinosaurs still living somewhere in the modern world. They turn up in a remarkable number of places; on the tops of high plateaus in the rain forest, frozen in ice, in suspended animation deep in the rocky crust of Earth, roaming lush valleys inexplicably buried under the ice caps, the deepest part of the oceans, as well as on other planets.
For paleontologists the idea of living dinosaurs is well
accepted. The remarkable discoveries in
the Cretaceous rocks of Liaoning China over the last two decades have revealed
an incredible diversity of small feathered predatory dinosaurs that irrefutably
show that birds evolved from small coelurosaurian theropods. The record of both skeletons and feathers is
so well documented that for paleontologists the dividing line between theropods
and birds has disappeared. We now know
of many feathered, non-bird, theropod dinosaurs, some of which were capable of
gliding. In an evolutionary sense not all dinosaurs went extinct at the end of
the Cretaceous period. Some, the birds, survived, surround us today and
frequently grace our dinner tables.
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| A tasty galliform-maniraptoran-coelurosaurian-theropoda-saurischian-dinosaur, with veggies. Plucked of course! |
REWORKED DINOSAURS
But there are fossils that at face value seem to show that
more “traditional” dinosaurs did survive the great end Mesozoic extinction. In
the late 19th century large serrated teeth, compressed and
blade-like, were discovered in post-Mesozoic age rocks in South
America. They looked very
much like the teeth of large theropods and were thought to indicate the long
term survival of predatory dinosaurs.
Not everyone was convinced they were dinosaur, but they certainly looked
dinosaur, and if they had been found in Mesozoic age rocks no one would dispute
their dinosaurian affinities. But they weren’t in Mesozoic age rocks --- so what
group of animals did they belong to?
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| The dinosaur like tooth of a sebecosuchian crocodilian. |
Later discoveries of the similar teeth in skulls revealed that
they belonged to a very peculiar group of extinct crocodilians known as
sebecosuchians. In living alligators and
crocodiles the skulls are flattened and the teeth are conical. Sebecosuchians are quite different crocs. Their skulls are compressed side to side,
making the heads taller than wide and the teeth are serrated compressed, and
recurved. We now know that
sebecosuchians were a long-lived group (Late Cretcaceous to Miocene) group of
land-welling, running crocodilians, found in South America, Europe, North
Africa,, and Asia. They have upright limbs and
a nasty predaceous habit. So it’s not
that surprising that they might have evolved a tooth structure similar to that
of theropods.
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| Sebecus, the crocodile with the dinosaur teeth. |
So the teeth of sebecosuchians turned out to be a matter of
misidentification as dinosaur due to a lack of knowledge. However, other
post-Mesozoic dinosaur fossils are in fact dinosaur fossils. Most striking is a
tooth belonging to a plant-eating iguanodontid dinosaur found in rocks of late
Miocene Age, approximately six million years old. How could this be? Were dinosaurs roaming all over France between
65 million and six million years without ever leaving any fossils behind, other
than this tooth?
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| Two iguanodontid teeth. A from the Miocene of France. B from the Cretaceous of England. Pound coin for scale. |
The real story of the French Miocene iguanodont teeth
involves a phenomenon known as reworking.
Fossils can be surprisingly durable and when the rocks they are enclosed
in are re-exposed and eroded, the fossils reappear on the surface (which is how
we find them). Once on the surface these
fossils can be transported and reburied.
Imagine, for example, fossil bones eroding out along the margin of an
ocean, being moved by current along the shoreline and to deeper water where
they are finally reburied. Of course,
this is most likely to occur with small fossils, not larger bones that will
break up into pieces.
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| Restoration of a Cretaceous Iguanodon. |
Not only are teeth the smallest part of the skeleton they
are also the hardest and most durable part of the skeleton because of enamel,
the hydroxyapatite mineral covering the tooth crown. So it is teeth that have the greatest
likelihood of being reworked as fossils.
On top of it, fossil teeth are remarkably resistant to damage. One bit of clever experimental work placed
fossil crocodilian and tyrannosaurid teeth in rock tumblers filled with sand
and tumbled them the equivalent of 300
miles (480 km) of transport.
Surprisingly, after all that tumbling the teeth showed virtually no
wear, damage, or scratching.
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| A 63,000,000 year-old Albertosaurus tooth exposed and loose on the surface in Canada. |
So the presence of dinosaur teeth in marine Miocene aged
rocks is best interpreted as dinosaur teeth that were fossilized, exposed tens
of millions of years later, reworked, and reburied in shallow marine waters. This is supported by the fact that the Miocene
rocks are deposited directly on Cretaceous rocks, indicating that the ocean
once exposed and covered the dinosaur fossil bearing Cretaceous rocks.
Claims have also been made for fossils indicating the persistence
of dinosaurs living in the Paleocene, the time period right after the end
Cretaceous extinction event. However, in
most cases the fossils in question are, again, fossil teeth, and fossil teeth
of dinosaurs known from Cretaceous age rocks in the same area. This too seems a case of reworked
fossils.
Given the problem of reworking, what would be convincing
evidence of dinosaurs living after the end Cretaceous extinction event? A pretty air tight case could made if a
significant part of an articulated skeleton was found. Having the bones preserved in contact with
one another in their life position would be unlikely if the bones had been
reworked and reburied. No such fossils
have ever been found, so while it is not inconceivable that in some area
dinosaurs might have survived the end Cretaceous extinction event for hundreds
of thousands of years, no evidence of such survival has yet been found. Extraordinary claims require extraordinary
evidence.
RELOCATED ROYAL MUMMIES
Reworking and reburial occurs with human remains but usually
this is done through human, rather than
natural, forces. Sometimes this occurs
for good reasons, as we’ll see with the mummies of Ancient Egypt. Sometimes for
pretty horrendous reasons, as we’ll see in the next section.
The pyramids on the Giza Plateau of Egypt are the final
resting places of great Old Kingdom Pharaohs.
Although the pyramids are colossal structures and required immense effort and
expense over many years to construct, they failed to protect the Pharaoh's
mummified remains. All burial chambers in the pyramids were looted and stripped
of their valuables millennia before being explored by archeologists.
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| The mummy and wooden sarcohpagus of Ramesses II recovered from the cliff cache at Dier el-Bahari in 1870. |
In the New Kingdom, pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in large and complex multi-room
chambers excavated directly into the bedrock of the valley. Alas, this turned out to be no more
successful at protecting the royal remains than were the pyramids. Many burials
in the Valley of the Kings were broken into
and looted in ancient times. By the 21st
Dynasty (~970 BC) the situation had become so intolerable that the priests
opened many of the remaining tombs, gathered up the mummies and funerary
objects and placed them collectively in a cache high up in the mountains of
Deir el-Bahari (DB320).
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| The vertical shaft leading to the cliff cache of royal mummies at Deir el-Bahari. |
There they remained, unmolested until 1881 when the
German Egyptologist Émile Brugsch was
lowered down a vertical rock shaft and, using a torch for light, gazed up the
remains of 50 royal mummies and thousands of funerary objects piled up in a
single chamber. That moment must have been almost as exciting as finding a dinosaur skeleton.
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| Egyptologist Émile Brugsch |
THE PAPAL CADAVER SYNOD OF 897 CE
Papal
politics during the first millennium CE was a political blood sport ---
literally. Popes often met a violent
end, some were poisoned (John VIII) , had their eyes gouged out and nose and lips
cut off (Pope Stephen XI), killed by a jealous cuckolded husband (Benedict V),
strangled, imprisoned, had their skulls crushed with hammers, or simply
disappeared. In one period of 32 years (872-904) there were no less than 24
popes, one of whom held office for ten years!
Between 896-904 there were nine popes, as many as were elected during
the entire twentieth century. However,
the pope of most interest to our discussion of reworked, transported, and
reburied remains is Pope Formosus (891-896).
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| Pope Formosus, a humble looking man with spectacularly complex post-mortem adventures. |
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| Formosus' nemesis, Pope Stephen VII. |
Formosus
died in 896. In 897 Pope Stephen VII (also, ironically known as Pope Stephen
VI) announced that the dead Pope Formosus would stand trial for a variety of
“crimes”. Formosus’ moldering corpse was dug up (reworking event number 1),
dressed in papal vestments, and hauled into court (transport event number 1) where
it was placed on a throne. Pope Steven
screamed, ranted, and railed at the body.
Not surprisingly, the clergy forming the “jury” found Formosus guilty on
all counts.
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| Jean-Paul Laurens' spectacular 1870 oil painting Le Pape Formose et Étienne VII (Pope Formosus and Stephen VII), rendering a touching scene of the cadaverous, moldering body of Pope Formosus on its papal throne (right) being subjected to a vigorous cross examination by Pope Stephen VII (left). |
But how, you ask, do you punish a corpse? Immediately upon conviction Stephen stripped the decayed body of its vestments and clothed it in peasant dress. The three fingers of the right hand, by which Formosus had given his benedictions, were cut off and the body reburied in a common grave (transport event number two and reburial event number 1). However, upon further reflection Stephen decided that was not quite enough punishment. He had the body exhumed again (reworking event number 2), dragged through Rome (transport event number 3) and, after having weights attached, tossed into the Tiber River (reburial event number 2). Secret supporters of Formosus worked with local fisherman to retrieve the body (reworking event number 3) and secretly buried in a graveyard (transport event number 4 and reburial event number 3).
In August
897, only months after the Cadaver Synod, Stephen VII was deposed and strangled
in prison. Pope Theodore II reigned for
only 20 days in late 897, but during that brief time he had Formosus exhumed
again (reworking event number 4), clad in papal attire, brought back to St. Peter’s
(transport event number 5) and reburied (reburial event number 4).
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| Never let a job go uncompleted: the cadaver synod juror and later pope Sergius III. |
Makes the reworking history of a French Miocene iguanodont
tooth seem like mere child’s play, n'est ce pas?
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SOURCES
Argast, S., Farlow, J.O., Gabet, R.M., and Brinkman,
D.L. 1987. Transport-induced abrasion of
fossil reptilian teeth: implications for the existence of Tertiary dinosaurs in
the Hell Creek Formation, Montana. Geology 15(10): 927-930.
Buffetaut, E., Cuny, G., and Le Lopeuff, J. 1991. French
dinosaurs: the best record in Europe? Modern Geology 16: 17-42.
Buffetaut, E., Pouit, D. and Taquets, P. 1980. Une dent de
dinosaurien Ornithopode remaniee dans le fauns miocenes de Doue-Douce
(Maine-et-Loire). C.R. somm. Soc. Geol.
Fr., fasc. 5: 200-202.
Chamberlin, E.R. 1986. The Bad popes. Dorset
Press: 320 pages.
Colbert, E.H. 1946. Sebecus,
representative of a peculiar suborder of fossil crocodilian from Patagina. Bulletin of the American Museum
of Natural History 87 (article 4): 221-270.
Lewis, B.R. 2009. A Dark History: The Popes. Vice, Murder,
and Corruption in the Vatican. Metro Books, NY:
PHOTO SOURCES
Thanksgiving turkey: http://fyi.uwex.edu/news/2012/11/16/fresh-or-frozen-turkey-ready-for-thanksgiving/
Sebecosuchian tooth: http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/imgs/512x768/0000_0000/0111/0451.jpeg
Sebecus head restoration: Colbert 1946.
Two iguanodont teeth: A. From Buffetaut et al 1980. B. From
Iguanodon restoration: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Iguanodon
Albertosaurus tooth: http://www.jasonschoonover.com/reddeer2012/RedDeer2012.htm
Ramesses II: http://www.egyptancient.net/danger.htm
Vertical shaft: http://www.triposo.com/poi/DB320
Emile Brugsch: http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiedosto:Emile_Brugsch.jpg
Pope Formosus: http://pope.oftheweek.org/?p=11
Pope Stephen VII:
Pope Formosus and Stephen VII: http://www.paintingsoil.org/oil-painting-Le-Pape-Formose-et-Etienne-VII%28Pope-Formosa-and-Stephen-VII%29-1870.html
Pope Sergius III: http://www.archelaos.com/popes/image.aspx?id=109
